[custom_adv]
The expansion of the secular system of education added a new dimension to the bureaucratic structure of homeland and undermined another traditional area of the ʿolamāʾ’s power.The bureaucratic expansion was further encouraged by the bourgeoisie’s historical weakness, which prevented it from undertaking major industrial investments, and by the absence of security of private property, a factor which derived from political instability and the possibility of confiscation.
