Meanwhile, by 1881 Russia had completed its conquest of present-day Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, bringing Russia’s frontier to northeastern borders and severing historic Iranian ties to the cities of Bukhara and Samarqand. Several trade concessions by the Iranian government put economic affairs largely under British control. By the late 19th century, many believed that their rulers were beholden to foreign interests.
Photographs of women dressed in men’s clothing from this era often show them wearing military coats, jackets, trousers, and sometimes even carrying swords or rifles. Some scholars interpret these images as private acts of self-expression — moments when women, usually from privileged families, could step outside the boundaries of gender roles imposed by society. In other cases, the cross-dressing might have been a form of artistic play or coded symbolism, perhaps commissioned by photographers or patrons interested in exploring gender fluidity or humor in portraiture. The poses often blend masculine postures with feminine gestures, creating a fascinating visual ambiguity.
